The Brave Little Tailor

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How the Tiger Got his Stripes

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پایان نامه زبان های خارجی : The Comparative Effect of Critical Thinking Instruction and Discourse Analysis

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فرمت فایل : WORD (قابل ویرایش)

تعداد صفحات:114

SUBJECT:
 The Comparative Effect of Critical Thinking Instruction and Discourse Analysis-Based Instruction on EFL Learners’ Motivation

Table of Contents
Abstract       III
Acknowledgments       IV
Table of Contents                                                                                                    V,VI,VII,VIII
List of Tables    IX
List of Figures/Appendixes    X
Chapter I    
Background and Purpose    
 1.1 Introduction                                                                                                                                    
 1.2 Statement of the Problem                                                                                                       11
 1.3 Statement of the Research Questions                                                                                14
 1.4 Statement of the Research Hypotheses                                                                            15
 1.5 Definition of the Key Terms     
    1.5.1 Critical thinking instruction                                                                                     15
    1.5.2 Discourse Analysis-based instruction                                                                  15
    1.5.3Motivation                                                                                                            16
 1.6 Significance of the Study                                                                                               16
 1.7 Limitations and Delimitations    
    1.7.1 Limitations                                                                                                          18
 1.7.2 Delimitations                                                                                                       19
 1.7.3 Assumptions                                                                                                       20
Chapter II     
Review of the Related Literature     
 2.1 Introduction                                                                                                                 22
 2.2 Critical Thinking                                                                                                         22
 2.2.1 Theoretical   Background                                                                                       22
 2.2.2   The philosophical approach                                                                                  22
    2.2.3 The cognitive psychological approach    24
 2.2.4 The History of Critical Thinking     28
    2.2.5 Development of Critical Thinking    30
    2.2.5.1Critical Thinking in the Average Person    30
   2.2.5.2 Critical Thinking in Children    31
   2.2.6 Critical Thinker Characteristics    32
   2.2.7 Critical Thinking Skills    34
    2.2.8 Teaching Critical Thinking    35
        2.2.8.1 Debate    37
        2.2.8.2 Media Analysis    38
        2.2.8.3 Problem Solving    39
           2.2.9. Critical thinking and motivation     39
2.3 Discourse    40
         2.3.1 Origins of Discourse Analysis    42
         2.3.2 Approaches to the phenomenon of discourse    47
         2.3.3 Discourse and Context    49
         2.3.4 Teaching Discourse Analysis    50
               2.3.4.1 The segmentation of discourse    52
               2.3.4.2 Sequencing    52
               2.3.4.3 Selection and Presentation of language sample
    53
            2.3.5 Discourse and Background Knowledge    54
            2.3.6. Discourse Analysis and Motivation    54
    2.4 Motivation    55
            2.4.1 Introduction    55
           2.4.2 Origins  of  Motivation    57
           2.4.3 Gardner’s motivation theory    60
         2.4.3.1 The socio-educational model    61
                 2.4.3.2 Integrative motivation    63
                 2.4.3.3 Extended versions of the socio-educational model    66
  2.4.4 Other Motivation theories in Educational Psychology and
        Language Learning.    69
                    2.4.4.1 Self-determination theory    70
                    2.4.4.2 Achievement Motivation theory    71
                    2.4.4.3. Goal-orientation theory    72
            2.4.4.4 Dörneyi and Otto’s Process Model of L2 Motivation    72
            2.4.4.5 Dörnyei’s Motivational Framework of L2 Motivation    73
   2.4.5 Motivation  and  Language  Teaching
    74
Chapter III    
METHOD    
   3.1 Introduction    77
   3.2 Participants    77
   3.3 Instrumentation    78
      3.3.1. Preliminary English Test (PET)    78
      3.3.2. Writing Rating Scale    79
      3.3.3. Speaking Rating Scale
                 80
      3.3.4. Motivation Questionnaire    80
         3.3.5. Instructional Materials     80
      3.3.6. Critical Thinking Instruction Guide    81
3.4 Procedure     82
           3.4.1. Critical thinking Instruction     83
        3.4.2. Discourse Analysis-based Instruction    84
   3.5 Design     87
3.6 Statistical Analyses    87
Chapter IV    
Results and Discussion    
 4.1 Introduction     90
          4.2.1. Pet Piloting Results    91
       4.2.2. Motivation Pretest    92
       4.2.3. Testing the Null hypothesis    95
    4.3. Discussion    98
Chapter V    
CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATION    
     5.1 Introduction    104
     5.2. Restatement of the Hypotheses    104
     5.3. Conclusion    104
     5.4. Pedagogical Implications    106
     5.5.Implications for EFL Teachers, Learners, and Syllabus
             Designers    
            5.5.1. Implications for EFL Teachers    106
            5.5.2. Implications for Learners      108
            5.5.3. Implications for Syllabus Designers and Material Developers    109
      5.6. Suggestions for Further Research    110
 References    111


List of Tables
Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics of the PET scores at piloting stage    91
Table 4.2: Reliability check result of the PET at pilot stage    91
Table 4.3 Inter rater reliability of  PET Writing scores    92
Table 4.4 Inter rater reliability of  PET Speaking scores    92
Table 4.5 Tests of Normality of the pretreatment scores distribution    93
Table 4.6 Ranks of pretest scores    93
Table 4.7 Test Statistics a    94
Table 4.8Tests of Normality of the posttest scores distribution    95
Table 4.9 Ranks of posttest scores    95
Table 4.10 Test Statistics a    96
Table 4.11 Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test    97
Table 4.12 Test Statistics b    97

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Tremblay and Gardner‘s (1995) Model of L2 Motivation           69
Figure 4.1 Bar graph representing the pretest mean scores of the two groups    94
Figure 4.2 Bar graph representing the posttest mean scores of the two groups    96

Appendixes
Appendix1.PET Test    136
Appendix2. Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)     157
Appendix3.Critical thinking instruction Guide    160
Appendix4.Discourse Analysis – Based Instruction Guide    173




CHAPTER I
BACKROUND AND PURPOSE

1.1 Introduction
English  is  a  commonly  used  language  in  the  world  and  people  with  different  languages  use  it  to  communicate.  So  recognizing  the  interplay  between  motivation  and  learning  English  seems  to  be  crucial  not  only  to  L2  learners,  but  also  to  teachers,  parents,  and  materials  developers  in  educational  settings.  Examining  the  recent  literature  on  motivation  and  learning  English  highlights  how  understanding  the  relationship  between  motivation,  goal  setting  (Melendy,  2008),  and  L2  proficiency  (Liu,  2007)  can  make  L2  learners  more  responsible  for  their  own  learning  by  setting  realistic  goals  for  themselves,  the  attainment  of  which  would  be  self-rewarding.
    Motivation   is vital   to survival, and ties emotion to action. It creates guides  purposeful  behavior  which   involves  many   systems   and structure  within the body and brain (Ratey,2001). Wlodkowski  (1984)  identified  three  sequences  in  motivation,  in  the  first  stage;  the  teacher  creates  a  positive  attitude  in  learners  towards  an  L2  and  provides  a  collaborative  rather  than  competitive  environment  in  the  classroom.  In  the  next  stage,  learners  should  have  attention  and  a  positive  atmosphere  created.  At  the  third  stage,  the  teacher  engages  students  in  activities  and  gives  them  a  sense  of  accomplishment,  by  praising  them  for  making  progress. Motivation and learning   psychologically   and   biologically can’t be separated (Zull, 2002).    
     Within  language  learning  research,  a  number  of  important  motivational  variables  have  been  identified  as  contributing  to  successful  language  learning  and  acquisition. Researchers   have  found  that  improvement  in  instruction can cause student continuation and success(Grubb and Associates,1999;Kuh and others,2005). In  particular,  factors  related  to  instructors  and  instructions  have  shown  to  have  an  important    role  in  motivating  and  demotivating  language  learners  (Chambers,  1998;  Falout  &  Maruyama,  2004;  Gorham  &  Millette,  1997;  Sakui  &  Gaeis,  1999).   Teachers’  motivational  practice  could  increase  students’  motivation  (Guilloteaux  &  Dörnyei,  2008).
     Combining neuroscientific understanding of motivation  with  nowadays  knowledge and psychology  and  education  can  make new areas to study .Brain has evolved over million years as major organ for ensuring human survival. In gradually changing terms. The neucortex is the main part of brain for  thinking ,analyzing and planning used in learning ,so when brain operates it means that feelings are controlled .Feedback about ones’ learning significantly contributes to ones’ sense of control and it’s important for intrinsic motivation and improving learning(Zull,2002). At each educational level, thinking should be practiced in each subject  field. This will be hard work for the teacher. It is  much   easier to teach students to memorize facts and then assess their knowledge  by  multiple-choice tests. In a course that emphasizes thinking, objectives must include application and analysis, divergent thinking, and opportunities to organize ideas and support value judgments.
     If teachers recognize that what they teach today will be replaced by the discoveries of tomorrow, the content-versus-process disagreement will resolve (Schmitt, 2002).So Critical Thinking Based instruction can be one option to use in English classes to increase motivation.         Kennedy, M., Fisher, M. B., & Ennis, R. H. (1991)point  out  that  empirical  research  suggests  that  students  of  all  intellectual ability  levels  can  benefit  from  critical  thinking  instruction. Similarly, Lewis and  Smith (1993) argue  that  critical  thinking  skills  are  for  everyone, not  just the  gifted.
     Paul  (1992)  argues  that  typical  school  instruction  does  not  support  the  development  of  higher-order  thinking  skills  like  critical  thinking.  Paul  explains  that  knowledge  is  gained  with  thinking,  especially  critical  thinking.  Motivation  related  to  critical  thinking  that  includes  skills  or  abilities  and  disposition.  
     Critical  thinking  is  the  process  of  skillfully  conceptualizing,  applying,  reflection,  reasoning  or  communication  that  affects  belief  and  action  (Sezer,  2008).Critical  thinking is generally  recognized  as  an  important  skill  for  students  to  acquire  in  the  acquisition  of  academic  language  (Connolly,  2000;  Davidson,  1998;  Davidson  &  Dunham,  1997).
     Based  on  the  importance  of  critical  thinking  in  education,  Fisher  and  Scriven  (1997)  stated  critical  thinking  should  be  thought  when  thinking  skill  of  students  are  not  enough  to  face  with  the  problems  in  the  life  or  education.  People  do  not  have  critical  thinking  skill  when  they  are born  so  teaching  critical  thinking  can  be  the  first  step  in creating it in them.   Critical  thinking  instruction  includes   different  activities  based  on  skills.  
     Instructors  have  different  ideas  about  teaching  critical  thinking.  Some  say  that  it  can  be  taught   through  lecturing  because  participants  think  that  critical  thinking  is  an  active  process  whose  skills  such  as  analysis,  synthesis  and  reflection  must  be  learnt  by  performing  them(Corten,2005;  Grosser  &  Lombard,2008;  Richard  &  Schmidt,2002).
     Cooper (1995), on the other hand, argues that putting students in group learning situations is the best way to foster critical thinking. "In properly structured cooperative learning environments, students perform more of the active, critical thinking with continuous support and feedback from other students and the teacher" (p. 8),and in Case Study /Discussion Method, McDade (1995) describes this method as the teacher presenting a case (or story) to the class without a conclusion. Using prepared questions, the teacher then leads students through a discussion, allowing students to construct a conclusion for the case, in  Using Questions, King (1995) identifies ways of using questions in the classroom: Reciprocal Peer Questioning: Following lecture, the teacher displays a list of question stems (such as, "What are the strengths and weaknesses of...). Students must write questions about the lecture material. In small groups, the students ask each other the questions. Then, the whole class discusses some of the questions from each small group.

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THE MODERN BENONI

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قابلیت پخش: اندروید - کامپیوتر

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